The
Qur'an is the most often-read book in the world. Revealed by God to the
Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) in the 7th century, and revered by
Muslims as being God's final Scripture and Testament, its words have
been lovingly recited, memorized, and implemented by Muslims of every
nationality ever since.
The
faithful are inspired, consoled often moved to tears by its eloquence
and poetic imagery, especially when recited aloud. And yet, the Qur'an
is unique in being the only Scripture that is free of scientific
inaccuracies, whose historical authenticity can be verified, and whose
text has been so carefully preserved that just one authorized version
(in Arabic) exists. Approximately the length of the New Testament, the
Qur'an is also the only holy book that can be memorized in its entirety
by people of all ages and intellectual abilities - including non-Arabic
speakers - which Muslims consider to be one of its miracles.
Wahy
Wahy (Arabic: وحي waḥy) is the Arabic word for revelation. In Islamic context, it refers to the revelations and inspirations of God (Arabic: Allah) to his prophets, for all humankind. In Islam, the Qur'an is considered a Wahy given to Muhammad. It is a higher form of revelation than Ilhaam & Wahi. Wahy, unlike the lesser forms of revelation, is considered flawless.
Awha
The word awha (أوحى awḥá)
occurs in a number of shades of meaning in the Qur'an, each of them
indicating the main underlying idea of inspiration directing or guiding
someone. The word 'wahy' (revelation) is derived from awha.
Description of Wahy
Muhammad is reported to have had mysterious seizures at the moments of inspiration. Welch, a scholar of Islamic studies, in Encyclopedia of Islam
states that the graphic descriptions of Muhammad's condition at these
moments may be regarded as genuine, since they are unlikely to have been
invented by later Muslims. According to Welch, these seizures should
have been the most convincing evidence for the superhuman origin of
Muhammad's inspirations for people around him. Muhammad's enemies
however accused him as one possessed, a soothsayer, or a magician since
these experiences made an impression similar to those soothsayer figures
well known in ancient Arabia. Welch states it remains uncertain whether
Muhammad had such experiences before he began to see himself as a
prophet and if so how long did he have such experiences. [1]
Scholarly views
According to Rudi Paret,
"The accusation of dishonesty which has been laid down against the
Prophet time and again over the centuries up to the most recent times
with varying degrees of vehemence is relatively easy to refute." Annemarie Schimmel states that most recent studies of Muhammad indicate that Muhammad devoutly believed that he was God's instrument. William Montgomery Watt
argues that only Muhammad's sincerity can explain his "readiness to
endure hardship and persecution during the Meccan period when from a
secular point of view there was no prospect of success.[2]
To carry on in the face of persecution and hostility would have been
impossible for him unless he was fully persuaded that God had sent him.[3] "
Sometimes he [Muhammad] may have heard
the words being spoken to him, but for most part he seems simply to have
"found them in his heart". Whatever the precise "manner of
revelation"-and several different 'manners' were listed by Muslim
scholars- the important point is that the message was not the product of
Muhammad's conscious mind. He believed he could easily distinguish
between his own thinking and these revelations. His sincerity in this
belief must be accepted by the modern historian, for this alone makes
credible the development of a great religion. The further question,
however, whether the messages came from Muhammad's unconscious, or the
collective unconscious functioning in him, or from some divine source,
is beyond the competence of the historian.
According to historian Welch,
The really powerful factor in Muḥammad's
life and the essential clue to his extraordinary success was his
unshakable belief from beginning to end that he had been called by God. A
conviction such as this, which, once firmly established, does not admit
of the slightest doubt, exercises an incalculable influence on others.
The certainty with which he came forward as the executor of God's will
gave his words and ordinances an authority that proved finally
compelling.[5]
A number of Western historians have
addressed the question of whether Muhammad was sincere when he reported
receiving revelations. Around a hundred years ago, Thomas Carlyle
in his lectures, "On Heroes", vigorously defended Muhammad arguing that
one can only accuse him of insincerity if one fails to understand Islam
and its worldwide success. [2]
Carlyle's view has been increasingly influential ever since and
contemporary historians tend to say that as far as can be ascertained
Muhammad did believe that he was hearing the word of God. [4][6]
Watt notes that "To say that Muhammad was
sincere does not imply that he was correct in his beliefs. A man maybe
sincere but mistaken. The modern Westerner has not difficulty in showing
how Muhammad may have been mistaken. What seems to a man to come from
'outside himself' may actually come from his unconscious."[7]
The Qur’an[1] (Arabic: القرآن al-qur’ān, literally “the recitation”; also sometimes transliterated as Quran, Qur’ān, Koran, Alcoran or Al-Qur’ān) is the central religious text of Islam. Muslims believe the Qur’an to be the book of divine guidance and direction for mankind, and consider the original Arabic text to be the final revelation of God.[2][3][4][5]
Islam holds that the Qur’an was revealed to Muhammad by the angel JibrīlCE to his death in 632 CE.[2][6][7] Followers of Islam further believe that the Qur’an was written down by Muhammad's companions
while he was alive, although the primary method of transmission was
oral. It is maintained that in 633 CE, the written text was compiled,
and in 653 CE it was standardized, distributed in the Islamic empire and produced in large numbers.[8]
The present form of the Qur’an is regarded by Muslims as God's
revelation to Muhammad. Academic scholars often consider it the original
version authored or dictated by Muhammad.[9] Muslim tradition agrees that it was fixed in writing shortly after Muhammad's death by order of Umar and Abu Bakr.[10] (Gabriel) from 610
The Qur'an itself expresses that it is
the book of guidance. Therefore it rarely offers detailed accounts of
historical events; the text instead typically placing emphasis on the
moral significance of an event rather than its narrative sequence.[22] Muslims believe the Qur'an itself to be the main miracle of Muhammad and a proof of his prophethood.[23]
Etymology and meaning
The original usage of the word qur`ān is in the Qur’an itself, where it occurs about 70 times assuming various meanings. It is a verbal noun (maṣdar) of the Arabicqara`a (Arabic: قرأ), meaning “he read” or “he recited”, and represents the Syriac equivalent qeryānā
which refers to “scripture reading” or “lesson”. While most Western
scholars consider the word to be derived from the Syriac, the majority
of Muslim authorities hold the origin of the word is qara`a itself.[24] In any case, it had become an Arabic term by Muhammad's lifetime.[2] Among the earliest meanings of the word Qur’an is the “act of reciting”, for example in a Qur’anic passage: “Ours is it to put it together and [Ours is] its qur`ān”.[25] In other verses it refers to “an individual passage recited [by Muhammad]”. In the large majority of contexts, usually with a definite article (al-), the word is referred to as the “revelation” (wahy), that which has been “sent down” (tanzīl) at intervals.[26][27] Its liturgical context is seen in a number of passages, for example: "So when al-qur`ān is recited, listen to it and keep silent".[28] The word may also assume the meaning of a codified scripture when mentioned with other scriptures such as the Torah and Gospel.[29] verb
The term also has closely related synonyms
which are employed throughout the Qur’an. Each of the synonyms possess
their own distinct meaning, but their use may converge with that of qur`ān in certain contexts. Such terms include kitābāyah (“sign”); and sūrah (“scripture”). The latter two terms also denote units of revelation. Other related words are: dhikr, meaning "remembrance," used to refer to the Qur’an in the sense of a reminder and warning; and hikma, meaning “wisdom”, sometimes referring to the revelation or part of it.[24][30] (“book”);
The Qur’an has many other names. Among those found in the text itself are al-furqan (“discernment” or “criterion”), al-huda (“"the guide”), dhikrallahal-hikmah (“the wisdom”), and kalamallah (“the word of God”). Another term is al-kitāb (“the book”), though it is also used in the Arabic language for other scriptures, such as the Torah and the Gospels. The term mus'haf
("written work") is often used to refer to particular Qur'anic
manuscripts but is also used in the Qur’an to identify earlier revealed
books.[2] (“the remembrance of God”),
Text
Main articles: Sura and Ayah
The text of the Qur’an consists of 114 chapters of varying lengths, each known as a sura. Chapters are classed as Meccan or Medinan,
depending on where the verses were revealed. Chapter titles are derived
from a name or quality discussed in the text, or from the first letters
or words of the sura. Muslims believe that Muhammad, on God's command, gave the chapters their names.[2]
Generally, longer chapters appear earlier in the Qur’an, while the
shorter ones appear later. The chapter arrangement is thus not connected
to the sequence of revelation. Each sura except the ninth commences with the Basmala[31],
an Arabic phrase meaning (“In the name of God, Most Gracious, Most
Merciful”). There are, however, still 114 occurrences of the basmala in
the Qur’an, due to its presence in verse 27:30 as the opening of
Solomon's letter to the Queen of Sheba.[32]
Each sura is formed from several ayat (verses), which originally means a sign or portent sent by God. The number of ayat differ from sura to sura. An individual ayah may be just a few letters or several lines. The ayat are unlike the highly refined poetry of the pre-Islamic Arabs in their content and distinctive rhymesJudaism and Christianity. The actual number of ayat
has been a controversial issue among Muslim scholars since Islam's
inception, some recognizing 6,000, some 6,204, some 6,219, and some
6,236, although the words in all cases are the same. The most popular
edition of the Qur’an, which is based on the Kufa school tradition, contains 6,236 ayat.[2] and rhythms, being more akin to the prophetic utterances marked by inspired discontinuities found in the sacred scriptures of
There is a crosscutting division into 30 parts, ajza, each containing two units called ahzab, each of which is divided into four parts (rub 'al-ahzab). The Qur’an is also divided into seven stations (manazil).[2]
The Qur’anic text seems to have no beginning, middle, or end, its nonlinear structure being akin to a web or net.[2]
The textual arrangement is sometimes considered to have lack of
continuity, absence of any chronological or thematic order, and presence
of repetition.[33][34]
Fourteen different Arabic letters form 14 different sets of “Qur’anic Initials”
(the "Muqatta'at", such as A.L.M. of 2:1) and prefix 29 suras in the
Qur’an. The meaning and interpretation of these initials is considered
unknown to most Muslims. In 1974, Egyptian biochemist Rashad Khalifa claimed to have discovered a mathematical code based on the number 19,[35] which is mentioned in Sura 74:30[36] of the Qur’an.
Literary structure
The Qur’an's message is conveyed through
the use of various literary structures and devices. In the original
Arabic, the chapters and verses employ phonetic and thematic
structures that assist the audience's efforts to recall the message of
the text. There is consensus among Arab scholars to use the Qur’an as a
standard by which other Arabic literature should be measured. Muslims
assert (in accordance with the Qur’an itself) that the Qur’anic content
and style is inimitable.[37]
Richard Gottheil and Siegmund Fränkel in the Jewish Encyclopedia
write that the oldest portions of the Qur’an reflect significant
excitement in their language, through short and abrupt sentences and
sudden transitions. The Qur’an nonetheless carefully maintains the
rhymed form, like the oracles. Some later portions also preserve this form but also in a style where the movement is calm and the style expository.[38]
Michael Sells, citing the work of the critic Norman O. Brown,
acknowledges Brown's observation that the seeming "disorganization" of
Qur’anic literary expression — its "scattered or fragmented mode of
composition," in Sells's phrase — is in fact a literary device capable
of delivering "profound effects — as if the intensity of the prophetic
message were shattering the vehicle of human language in which it was
being communicated."[39][40] Sells also addresses the much-discussed "repetitiveness" of the Qur’an, seeing this, too, as a literary device.
| "The
values presented in the very early Meccan revelations are repeated
throughout the hymnic Suras. There is a sense of directness, of
intimacy, as if the hearer were being asked repeatedly a simple
question: what will be of value at the end of a human life?" |
- Sells[39]
|
Significance in Islam
Muslims believe the Qur’an to be the book of divine guidance and direction for mankind and consider the text in its original Arabic to be the literal word of God,[41] revealed to Muhammad through the angel Gabriel[6][7] and view the Qur’an as God's final revelation to humanity.[42][6] over a period of twenty-three years
Wahy
in Islamic and Qur’anic concept means the act of God addressing an
individual, conveying a message for a greater number of recipients. The
process by which the divine message comes to the heart of a messenger of
God is tanzil (to send down) or nuzul
(to come down). As the Qur'an says, "With the truth we (God) have sent
it down and with the truth it has come down." It designates positive
religion, the letter of the revelation dictated by the angel to the
prophet. It means to cause this revelation to descend from the higher
world. According to hadith, the verses were sent down in special
circumstances known as asbab al-nuzul. However, in this view God himself is never the subject of coming down.[43]
The Qur'an frequently asserts in its text
that it is divinely ordained, an assertion that Muslims believe. The
Qur'an — often referring to its own textual nature and reflecting
constantly on its divine origin — is the most meta-textual,
self-referential religious text. The Qur'an refers to a written pre-text
which records God's speech even before it was sent down.[44][45]
| “ | And
if ye are in doubt as to what We have revealed from time to time to Our
servant, then produce a Sura like thereunto; and call your witnesses or
helpers (If there are any) besides God, if your (doubts) are true. But
if ye cannot — and of a surety ye cannot — then fear the Fire whose fuel
is men and stones, which is prepared for those who reject Faith. | ” |
|
|
The issue of whether the Qur'an is eternal or created was one of the crucial controversies among early Muslim theologians. Mu'tazilis believe it is created while the most widespread varieties of Muslim theologians consider the Qur'an to be eternal and uncreated. Sufi philosophers view the question as artificial or wrongly framed.[46]
Muslims maintain the present wording of the Qur'anic text corresponds exactly to that revealed to Muhammad himself: as the words of God, said to be delivered to Muhammad through the angel Gabriel.
Muslims consider the Qur'an to be a guide, a sign of the prophethood of
Muhammad and the truth of the religion. They argue it is not possible
for a human to produce a book like the Qur'an, as the Qur'an itself
maintains.
Therefore an Islamic philosopher introduces a prophetology to explain how the divine word passes into human expression. This leads to a kind of esoteric hermeneutics which seeks to comprehend the position of the prophet
by mediating on the modality of his relationship not with his own time,
but with the eternal source from which his message emanates. This view
contrasts with historical critique of western scholars who attempt to
understand the prophet through his circumstances, education and type of
genius.[47]
Miracle
Islamic scholars believe the Qur’an to be
miraculous by its very nature in being a revealed text and that similar
texts cannot be written by human endeavor. Its miraculous nature is
claimed to be evidenced by its literary style, suggested similarities
between Qur’anic verses and scientific facts discovered much later, and
various prophecies. The Qur’an itself challenges those who deny its
claimed divine origin to produce a text like it. [Qur'an 17:88][Qur'an 2:23][Qur'an 10:38].[48][49][50]
These claims originate directly from Islamic belief in its revealed
nature, and are widely disputed by non-Muslim scholars of Islamic
history.[51]
History of Qur’an
The Prophet era
According to hadith and Muslim history, after Muhammad emigrated to Medinasahaba)
to recite the Qur’an and to learn and teach the laws which were being
revealed daily. Companions who engaged in the recitation of the Qur’an
were called qurra'. Since most sahaba
were unable to read or write, they were ordered to learn from the
prisoners-of-war the simple writing of the time. Thus a group of sahaba gradually became literate. As it was initially spoken, the Qur’an was recorded on tablets, bones and the wide, flat ends of date palm fronds. Most chapters were in use amongst early Muslims since they are mentioned in numerous sayings by both Sunni and Shia
sources, relating Muhammad's use of the Qur'an as a call to Islam, the
making of prayer and the manner of recitation. However, the Qur’an did
not exist in book form at the time of Muhammad's death in 632.[52][53] and formed an independent Muslim community, he ordered a considerable number of the companions (
Welch, a scholar of Islamic studies, states in the Encyclopaedia of Islam
that he believes the graphic descriptions of Muhammad's condition at
these moments may be regarded as genuine, seeing as he was severely
disturbed after these revelations. According to Welch, these seizures
would have been seen by those around him as convincing evidence for the
superhuman origin of Muhammad's inspirations. Muhammad's critics,
however, accused him of being a possessed man, a soothsayer or a magician since his experiences were similar to those claimed by such figures well-known in ancient Arabia.
Additionally, Welch states that it remains uncertain whether these
experiences occurred before or after Muhammad began to see himself as a
prophet.[54]
The Qur’an states that Muhammad was ummi,[55] interpreted as illiterate in Muslim tradition. According to Watt, the meaning of the Qur’anic term ummi
is unscriptured rather than illiterate. Watt argues that a certain
amount of writing was necessary for Muhammad to perform his commercial
duties though it seems certain that he had not read any scriptures.
Making Mus'haf
According to Shia and some Sunni scholars, Ali compiled a complete version of the Qur’an mus'haf [2] immediately after Muhammad's death. The order of this mus'haf differed from that gathered later during Uthman's era. Despite this, Ali made no objection or resistance against standardized mus'haf, but kept his own book.[52][56]
After seventy reciters were killed in the Battle of Yamama, the caliph Abu BakrZayd ibn Thabit, collected the chapters and verses and produced several hand-written copies of the complete book.[52][57] decided to collect the different chapters and verses into one volume. Thus, a group of reciters, including
In about 650, as Islam expanded beyond the Arabian peninsula into Persia, the Levant and North Africa, the third caliph Uthman ibn Affan
ordered the preparation of an official, standardized version, in order
to preserve the sanctity of the text (and perhaps to keep the Rashidun Empire united, see Uthman Qur'an).
Five reciters from amongst the companions produced a unique text from
the first volume which had been prepared on the orders of Abu Bakr and
which was kept with Hafsa bint Umar.
The other copies already in the hands of Muslims in other areas were
collected and sent to Medina where, on orders of the Caliph, they were
destroyed by burning or boiling. This remains the authoritative text of
the Qur’an to this day.[52][58][59]
The Qur’an in its present form is
generally considered by academic scholars to record the words spoken by
Muhammad because the search for variants in Western academia has not
yielded any differences of great significance and because, historically,
controversy over the content of the Qur’an has never become a main
point.[60]
Literary usage
In addition to and largely independent of the division into suras,
there are various ways of dividing the Qur’an into parts of
approximately equal length for convenience in reading, recitation and
memorization. The thirty ajza
can be used to read through the entire Qur’an in a week or a month.
Some of these parts are known by names and these names are the first few
words by which the juz' starts. A juz' is sometimes further divided into two ahzab, and each hizb subdivided into four rub 'al-ahzab. A different structure is provided by the ruku'at, semantical units resembling paragraphs and comprising roughly ten ayat each. Some also divide the Qur’an into seven manazil to facilitate complete recitation in a week.
Recitation
| “ | ...and recite the Qur’an in slow, measured rhythmic tones. | ” |
|
|
One meaning of Qur’an is "recitation", the Qur’an itself outlining the general method of how it is to be recited: slowly and in rhythmic tones. Tajwid is the term for techniques of recitation, and assessed in terms of how accessible the recitation is to those intent on concentrating on the words.[61]
To perform salat (prayer), a mandatory obligation in Islam, a Muslim is required to learn at least some suar of the Qur’an (typically starting with the first one, al-Fatiha,
known as the "seven oft-repeated verses," and then moving on to the
shorter ones at the end). Until one has learned al-Fatiha, a Muslim can
only say phrases like "praise be to God" during the salat.
A person whose recital repertoire encompasses the whole Qur’an is called a qari', whereas a memoriser of the Qur’an is called a hafiz (fem. Hafaz) (which translate as "reciter" or "protector," respectively). Muhammad is regarded as the first qari'tilawa تلاوة) of the Qur’an is a fine art in the Muslim world. since he was the first to recite it. Recitation (
Schools of recitation
Page of a 13th century Qur’an, showing Sura 33: 73
There are several schools of Qur’anic recitation, all of which teach possible pronunciations of the Uthmanic rasm:
Seven reliable, three permissible and (at least) four uncanonical – in 8
sub-traditions each – making for 80 recitation variants altogether.[62] A canonical recitation must satisfy three conditions:
- It must match the rasm, letter for letter.
- It must conform with the syntactic rules of the Arabic language.
- It must have a continuous isnad to Muhammad through tawatur, meaning that it has to be related by a large group of people to another down the isnad chain.
These recitations differ in the vocalization (tashkil)
of a few words, which in turn gives a complementary meaning to the word
in question according to the rules of Arabic grammar. For example, the
vocalization of a verb can change its active and passive voice. It can
also change its stem formation, implying intensity for example. Vowels may be elongated or shortened, and glottal stops (hamzas) may be added or dropped, according to the respective rules of the particular recitation. For example, the name of archangel Gabriel
is pronounced differently in different recitations: Jibrīl, Jabrīl,
Jibra'īl, and Jibra'il. The name "Qur’an" is pronounced without the
glottal stop in one recitation, and Abraham's name is pronounced Ibrāhām in another.[citation needed]
The more widely used narrations are those of Hafss (حفص عن عاصم), Warsh (ورش عن نافع), Qaloon (قالون عن نافع) and Al-Duri according to Abu `Amr
(الدوري عن أبي عمرو). Muslims firmly believe that all canonical
recitations were recited by Muhammad himself, citing the respective isnad chain of narration, and accept them as valid for worshipping and as a reference for rules of Sharia. The uncanonical recitations are called "explanatory" for their role in giving a different perspective for a given verse or ayah.
Today several dozen persons hold the title "Memorizer of the Ten
Recitations." This is considered a great accomplishment amongst Muslims.[citation needed]
- Abd al-Rahman Ibn Abd al-Qari narrated: "Umar Ibn Khattab said before me: I heard Hisham Ibn Hakim Ibn Hizam reading Surah Furqan in a different way from the one I used to read it, and the Prophet
(sws) himself had read out this surah to me. Consequently, as soon as I
heard him, I wanted to get hold of him. However, I gave him respite
until he had finished the prayer. Then I got hold of his cloak and
dragged him to the Prophet (sws). I said to him: "I have heard this
person [Hisham Ibn Hakim Ibn Hizam] reading Surah Furqan in a different
way from the one you had read it out to me." The Prophet (sws) said:
"Leave him alone [O 'Umar]." Then he said to Hisham: "Read [it]." [Umar
said:] "He read it out in the same way as he had done before me." [At
this,] the Prophet (sws) said: "It was revealed thus." Then the Prophet
(sws) asked me to read it out. So I read it out. [At this], he said: "It
was revealed thus; this Qur’an has been revealed in Seven Ahruf. You can read it in any of them you find easy from among them.
Suyuti, a famous 15th century Islamic theologian, writes after interpreting above hadith in 40 different ways:[64]
| “ | And to me the best opinion in this regard is that of the people who say that this hadith is from among matters of mutashabihat, the meaning of which cannot be understood. | ” |
Many reports contradict the presence of variant readings:[65]
- Abu Abd al-Rahman al-Sulami reports, "the reading of Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman and Zayd ibn Thabit and that of all the Muhajirun and the Ansar was the same. They would read the Qur’an according to the Qira'at al-'ammah. This is the same reading which was read out twice by the Prophet (sws) to Gabriel in the year of his death. Zayd ibn Thabit was also present in this reading [called] the 'Ardah-i akhirah. It was this very reading that he taught the Qur’an to people till his death".[66]
- Ibn Sirin
writes, "the reading on which the Qur’an was read out to the prophet in
the year of his death is the same according to which people are reading
the Qur’an today".[67]
Javed Ahmad Ghamidi also purports that there is only one recitation of Qur’an, which is called Qira'at of Hafss or in classical scholarship, it is called Qira'at al-'ammah. The Qur'an has also specified that it was revealed in the language of Muhammad's tribe: the Quraysh.[Qur'an 19:97][Qur'an 44:58])[65]
However, the identification of the recitation of Hafss as the Qira'at al-'ammah
is somewhat problematic when that was the recitation of the people of
Kufa in Iraq, and there is better reason to identify the recitation of
the reciters of Madinah as the dominant recitation. The reciter of
Madinah was Nafi' and Imam Malik remarked "The recitation of Nafi' is
Sunnah." Moreover, the dialect of Arabic spoken by Quraysh and the Arabs
of the Hijaz was known to have less use of the letter hamzah, as is the
case in the recitation of Nafi', whereas in the Hafs recitation the
hamzah is one of the very dominant features.[citation needed]
AZ [however] says that the people of El-Hijaz and Hudhayl, and the people of Makkah and Al-Madinah, to not pronounce hamzah
[at all]: and 'Isa Ibn-'Omar says, Tamim pronounce hamzah, and the
people of Al-Hijaz, in cases of necessity, [in poetry,] do so.[68]
So the hamzah is of the dialect of the
Najd whose people came to comprise the dominant Arabic element in Kufa
giving some features of their dialect to their recitation, whereas the
recitation of Nafi' and the people of Madinah maintained some features
of the dialect of Hijaz and the Quraysh.[citation needed]
However, the discussion of the priority
of one or the other recitation is unnecessary since it is a consensus of
knowledgeable people that all of the seven recitations of the Qur’an
are acceptable and valid for recitation in the prayer.[citation needed]
Moreover, the un-canonical recitations
that are narrated from some of the Companions and which do not conform
to the Uthmani copy of the Qur’an are not legitimate for recitation in
the prayer, but knowledge of them can legitimately be used in the tafsir
of the Qur’an (not as a proof but as a valid argument for an
explanation of an ayah).[citation needed]
Writing and printing
Page from a Qur’an ('Umar-i Aqta'). Iran, present-day Afghanistan, Timuridwatercolor, ink and gold on paper Muqaqqaq script. 170 x 109cm (66 15/16 x 42 15/16in). Historical region: Uzbekistan. dynasty, circa 1400. Opaque
Most Muslims today use printed editions
of the Qur’an. There are many editions, large and small, elaborate or
plain, expensive or inexpensive. Bilingual forms with the Arabic on one
side and a gloss into a more familiar language on the other are very
popular.
Qur’ans are produced in many different
sizes. Most are of a reasonable book size, but there exist extremely
large Qur’ans (usually for display purposes)[citation needed][citation needed] and very small Qur’ans (sometimes given as gifts).
Qur’ans were first printed from carved
wooden blocks, one block per page. There are existing specimen of pages
and blocks dating from the 10th century CE. Mass-produced less expensive
versions of the Qur’an were later produced by lithography, a technique for printing illustrations. Qur’ans so printed could reproduce the fine calligraphy of hand-made versions.[citations needed]
It is extremely difficult to render the full Qur’an, with all the points, in computer code, such as Unicode. The Internet Sacred Text Archive makes computer files of the Qur’an freely available both as images[70] and in a temporary Unicode version.[71] Various designers and software firms have attempted to develop computer fonts that can adequately render the Qur’an.[72]
Before printing was widely adopted, the Qur’an was transmitted by copyists and calligraphers.[verification needed]
Since Muslim tradition felt that directly portraying sacred figures and
events might lead to idolatry, it was considered wrong to decorate the
Qur’an with pictures (as was often done for Christian texts, for
example). Muslims instead lavished love and care upon the sacred text
itself. Arabic is written in many scripts, some of which are both
complex and beautiful. Arabic calligraphy is a highly honored art, much like Chinese calligraphy. Muslims also decorated their Qur’ans with abstract figures (arabesques), colored inks, and gold leaf. Pages from some of these antique Qur’ans are displayed throughout this article.
Translations
Translation of the Qur’an has always been
a problematic and difficult issue. Since Islam regards the Qur’an as
miraculous and inimitable (i'jaz al-Qur’an),[citation needed][73] Furthermore, an Arabic word may have a range of meanings depending on the context, making an accurate translation even more difficult.[74] many argue that the Qur’anic text can not be reproduced in another language or form.
Nevertheless, the Qur’an has been translated into most African, Asian and European languages.[74] The first translator of the Qur’an was Salman the Persian, who translated Fatihah into Persian during the 7th century.[75] The first complete translation of Quran was into Persian during the reign of Samanids in the 9th century. Islamic tradition holds that translations were made for Emperor Negus of Abyssinia and Byzantine Emperor Heraclius, as both received letters by Muhammad containing verses from the Qur’an.[74] In early centuries, the permissibility of translations was not an issue, but whether one could use translations in prayer.
In 1936, translations in 102 languages were known.[74]
Robert of Ketton was the first person to translate the Qur’an into a Western language, Latin, in 1143.[76] Alexander Ross offered the first English version in 1649. In 1734, George Sale produced the first scholarly translation of the Qur’an into English; another was produced by Richard Bell in 1937, and yet another by Arthur John Arberry
in 1955. All these translators were non-Muslims. There have been
numerous translations by Muslims; the most popular of these are by Dr. Muhammad Muhsin Khan and Dr. Muhammad Taqi-ud-Din al Hilali, Maulana Muhammad Ali, Abdullah Yusuf Ali, M. H. Shakir, Muhammad Asad, Ghulam Ahmed Pervez, A. Momin and Marmaduke Pickthall.[citation needed]
The English translators have sometimes
favored archaic English words and constructions over their more modern
or conventional equivalents; for example, two widely-read translators,
A. Yusuf Ali and M. Marmaduke Pickthall, use the plural and singular
"ye" and "thou" instead of the more common "you."
Another common stylistic decision has been to refrain from translating
"Allah" — in Arabic, literally, "The God" — into the common English word
"God." These choices may differ in more recent translations.[citation needed]
Kanzul Iman is the name of the 1910 Urdu translation of the Qur'an by Ahmad Raza Khan, the scholar who revived Sunni Islam in the Subcontinent. The Sunnis of the Subcontinent are sometimes referred to as Barelwi due to him.[77]
It was subsequently translated into English by Professor Shah Faridul
Haque. Recently, it has been translated into many other regional
languages and become popular on the internet. Kanzul Iman is regarded highly by Sunni Muslims.
Levels of meaning and inward aspects of the Qur’an
"The Qur'an possesses an external
appearance and a hidden depth, an exoteric meaning and an esoteric
meaning. This esoteric meaning in turn conceals an esoteric meaning
(this depth possesses a depth, after the image of the celestial Spheres
which are enclosed within each other). So it goes on for seven esoteric
meanings (seven depths of hidden depth)."[78]
According to this view, it has also
become evident that the inner meaning of the Qur’an does not eradicate
or invalidate its outward meaning. Rather, it is like the soul, which
gives life to the body.[79]
On this viewpoint, Corbin considers the Qur’an to play a part in Islamic philosophy, because gnosiology itself goes hand in hand with prophetology.[80]
However, it is clear that those who don't believe in the divine origin
of the Qur’an or any kind of sacred or spiritual existence completely
oppose any inward Qur'anic aspect.
Commentaries dealing with the zahir (outward aspects) of the text are called tafsir, and hermeneutic and esoteric commentaries dealing with the batin are called ta'wil
(“interpretation” or “explanation”), which involves taking the text
back to its beginning. Esoteric commentators believe that the ultimate
meaning of the Qur’an is known only to God.[2]
In contrast, Qur'anic literalism, followed by Salafis and Zahiris,
is the belief that the Qur'an should be taken at its apparent meaning,
rather than employing any sort of interpretation. This includes, for
example, the belief that Allah has appendages such as hands as stated in
the Qur’an; this is generally explained by the concept of bi-la kaifa, the claim that the literal meanings should be accepted without asking how or why.[citation needed]
Tafsir
The Qur'an has sparked a huge body of commentary and explication, known as tafsir.
This commentary is aimed at explaining the "meanings of the Qur’anic
verses, clarifying their import and finding out their significance."[81] and best tafseer is done by Allah himself.[82]
Tafsir is one of the earliest academic
activities of Muslims. According to the Qur’an, Muhammad was the first
person who described the meanings of verses for early Muslims.[83] Other early exegetes included a few Companions of Muhammad, like Ali ibn Abi Talib, Abdullah ibn Abbas, Abdullah ibn Umar and Ubayy ibn Kab.
Exegesis in those days was confined to the explanation of literary
aspects of the verse, the background of its revelation and,
occasionally, interpretation of one verse with the help of the other. If
the verse was about a historical event, then sometimes a few traditions
(hadith) of Muhammad were narrated to make its meaning clear.[84]
Because the Qur’an is spoken in classical Arabic,
many of the later converts to Islam (mostly non-Arabs) did not always
understand the Qur’anic Arabic, they did not catch allusions that were
clear to early Muslims fluent in Arabic and they were concerned with
reconciling apparent conflict of themes in the Qur’an. Commentators
erudite in Arabic explained the allusions, and perhaps most importantly,
explained which Qur’anic verses had been revealed early in Muhammad's
prophetic career, as being appropriate to the very earliest Muslim
community, and which had been revealed later, canceling out or "abrogating" (nāsikh) the earlier text (mansukh).[85] [86] [87] Memories of the occasions of revelation (asbāb al-nuzūl),
the circumstances under which Muhammad had spoken as he did, were also
collected, as they were believed to explain some apparent obscurities.[citation needed]
Ta'wil
Ja'far Kashfi defines ta'wil
as 'to lead back or to bring something back to its origin or
archetype'. It is a science whose pivot is a spiritual direction and a
divine inspiration, while the tafsir is the literal exegesis of the letter; its pivot is the canonical Islamic sciences.[88] Allameh Tabataba'I says that according to the popular explanation among the later exegetes, ta'wil indicates the particular meaning towards which a verse is directed. The meaning of revelation (tanzil), as opposed to ta'wil,
is clear in its accordance to the obvious meaning of the words as they
were revealed. But this explanation has become so widespread that, at
present, it has become the primary meaning of ta'wil, which originally meant "to return" or "the returning place". In Tabataba'I's view, what has been rightly called ta'wil,
or hermeneutic interpretation of the Qur’an, is not concerned simply
with the denotation of words. Rather, it is concerned with certain
truths and realities that transcend the comprehension of the common run
of men; yet it is from these truths and realities that the principles of
doctrine and the practical injunctions of the Qur’an issue forth.
Interpretation is not the meaning of the verse; rather it transpires
through that meaning - a special sort of transpiration. There is a
spiritual reality which is the main objective of ordaining a law, or the
basic aim of describing a divine attribute; there is an actual
significance to which a Qur’anic story refers.[89][90]
However Shia and Sufism (on the one hand) and Sunni (on the other) have completely different positions on the legitimacy of ta'wil. A verse in the Qur’an[91]Allameh Tabataba'I,
the statement "none knows its interpretation except Allah" remains
valid, without any opposing or qualifying clause. Therefore, so far as
this verse is concerned, the knowledge of the Qur’an's interpretation is
reserved for Allah. But Tabataba'I uses other verses and concludes that those who are purified by God know the interpretation of the Qur’an to a certain extent.[90]
addresses this issue, but Shia and Sunni disagree on how it should be
read. According to Shia, those who are firmly rooted in knowledge like
the Prophet and the imams know the secrets of the Qur’an, while Sunnis
believe that only God knows. According to
The most ancient spiritual commentary on the Qur'an consists of the teachings which the Shia Imams
propounded in the course of their conversations with their disciples.
It was the principles of their spiritual hermeneutics that were
subsequently brought together by the Sufis. These texts are narrated by Imam AliJa'far al-Sadiq, Shia and Sunni Sufis.[92] and
As Corbin narrates from Shia sources, Ali himself gives this testimony:
Not a single verse of the Qur’an descended upon (was revealed to) the Messenger of God which he did not proceed to dictate to me and make me recite. I would write it with my own hand, and he would instruct me as to its tafsir (the literal explanation) and the ta'wil (the spiritual exegesis), the nasikh (the verse which abrogates) and the mansukh (the abrogated verse), the muhkam (without ambiguity) and the mutashabih (ambiguous), the particular and the general...[93]
According to Allameh Tabataba'I, there are acceptable and unacceptable esoteric interpretations. Acceptable ta'wil refers to the meaning of a verse beyond its literal meaning; rather the implicit meaning, which ultimately is known only to God
and can't be comprehended directly through human thought alone. The
verses in question here are those which refer to the human qualities of
coming, going, sitting, satisfaction, anger, and sorrow, which are
apparently attributed to God. Unacceptable ta'wil
is where one "transfers" the apparent meaning of a verse to a different
meaning by means of a proof; this method is not without obvious
inconsistencies. Although this unacceptable ta'wil has gained
considerable acceptance, it is incorrect and cannot be applied to the
Qur’anic verses. The correct interpretation is that reality to which a
verse refers. It is found in all verses, the decisive and the ambiguous
alike; it is not a sort of a meaning of the word; it is a real fact that
is too sublime for words. Allah has dressed them with words so as to
bring them a bit nearer to our minds; in this respect they are like
proverbs that are used to create a picture in the mind, and thus help
the hearer to clearly grasp the intended idea.[90][94]
Therefore Sufi spiritual interpretations are usually accepted by Islamic scholars as authentic interpretations, as long as certain conditions are met.[95] In Sufi history, these interpretations were sometimes considered religious innovations (bid'ah), as Salafis believe today. However, ta'wil is extremely controversial even amongst Shia. For example, when Ayatollah Ruhallah Khomeini, the leader of Islamic revolution, gave some lectures about Surat al-Fatiha
in December 1979 and January 1980, protests forced him to suspend them
before he could proceed beyond the first two verses of the surah.[96]
Relationship with other literature
The Torah and the Bible
| “ | It
is He Who sent down to thee (step by step), in truth, the Book,
confirming what went before it; and He sent down the Law (of Moses) and
the Gospel (of Jesus) before this, as a guide to mankind, and He sent
down the criterion (of judgment between right and wrong).[97] | ” |
|
|
The Qur'an speaks well of the relationship it has with former books (the Torah and the Gospel) and attributes their similarities to their unique origin and saying all of them have been revealed by the one God.[98]
The Qur'an retells stories of many of the people and events recounted in Jewish and Christian sacred books (Tanakh, Bible) and devotional literature (Apocrypha, Midrash), although it differs in many details. Adam, Enoch, Noah, Heber, Shelah, Abraham, Lot, Ishmael, Isaac, Jacob, Joseph, Job, Jethro, David, Solomon, Elijah, Elisha, Jonah, Aaron, Moses, Zechariah, John the Baptist, and Jesus are mentioned in the Qur’an as prophets of God (see Prophets of Islam).
Muslims believe the common elements or resemblances between the Bible
and other Jewish and Christian writings and Islamic dispensations is due
to their common divine source, and that the original Christian or
Jewish texts were authentic divine revelations given to prophets.
Muslims believe that those texts were neglected, corrupted (tahrif)
or altered in time by the Jews and Christians and have been replaced by
God's final and perfect revelation, which is the Qur'an.[99]
Influence of Christian apocrypha
Arab writing
After the Qur’an, and the general rise of Islam, the Arabic alphabet developed rapidly into a beautiful and complex form of art.[102]
Although Arabic, as a language and a
literary tradition, was quite well developed by the time of Muhammad's
prophetic activity, it was only after the emergence of Islam, with its
founding scripture in Arabic, that the language reached its utmost
capacity of expression, and the literature its highest point of
complexity and sophistication. Indeed, it probably is no exaggeration to
say that the Qur’an was one of the most conspicuous forces in the
making of classical and post-classical Arabic literature.
The main areas in which the Qur’an
exerted noticeable influence on Arabic literature are diction and
themes; other areas are related to the literary aspects of the Qur’an
particularly oaths (q.v.), metaphors, motifs, and symbols. As far as
diction is concerned, one could say that Qur’anic words, idioms, and
expressions, especially "loaded" and formulaic phrases, appear in
practically all genres of literature and in such abundance that it is
simply impossible to compile a full record of them. For not only did the
Qur’an create an entirely new linguistic corpus to express its message,
it also endowed old, pre-Islamic words with new meanings and it is
these meanings that took root in the language and subsequently in the
literature...
In culture
An Arabic Quran with Persian translation.
Most Muslims treat paper copies of the Qur’an with veneration, ritually washing before reading the Qur’an.[104]
Worn out, torn, or errant (for example, pages out of order) Qur’ans are
not discarded as wastepaper, but rather are left free to flow in a
river, kept somewhere safe, burnt, or buried in a remote location. Many
Muslims memorize at least some portion of the Qur’an in the original
Arabic, usually at least the verses needed to perform the prayers. Those
who have memorized the entire Qur’an earn the right to the title of Hafiz.[105]
Based on tradition and a literal interpretation of sura 56:77-79: "That this is indeed a Qur’an Most Honourable, In a Book well-guarded, Which none shall touch but those who are clean.", many scholars opine that a Muslim perform wudu (ablution or a ritual cleansing with water) before touching a copy of the Qur’an, or mus'haf.
This view has been contended by other scholars on the fact that,
according to Arabic linguistic rules, this verse alludes to a fact and
does not comprise an order. The literal translation thus reads as "That (this) is indeed a noble Qur'ān, In a Book kept hidden, Which none toucheth save the purified,"
(translated by Mohamed Marmaduke Pickthall). It is suggested based on
this translation that performing ablution is not required.
Qur'an desecration
means insulting the Qur’an by defiling or dismembering it. Muslims must
always treat the book with reverence, and are forbidden, for instance,
to pulp, recycle, or simply discard worn-out copies of the text. Respect
for the written text of the Qur’an is an important element of religious
faith by many Muslims. They believe that intentionally insulting the
Qur’an is a form of blasphemy.
The text
of the Quran has become readily accessible over the internet, in Arabic
as well as numerous translations in other languages. It can be
downloaded and searched both word-by-word and with Boolean algebra.
Photos of ancient manuscripts and illustrations of Quranic art can be
witnessed. However, there are still limits to searching the Arabic text
of the Quran.
